Ebola Virus: History, Symptoms and Treatment

Ebola Virus: History, Symptoms and Treatment Vijayatheeban Jeyanandan Ebola virus outbreaks: The deadly and incurable Hemorrhagic fever Contents (Jump to) 1.1 Introduction. 1.2 History of Ebola virus. 1.3 Characteristics of Ebola virus. 1.4 Symptoms of Ebola infection. 1.5 Diagnosis methods. 1.6 Treatment methods. 1.7 Conclusion Reference list 1.1 Introduction A reported by the World Health Organization (2014) Ebola virus disease once known as Ebola haemorrhagic fever is a serious, frequently deadly disease, with a case casualty rate of up to 90%. There are no authorized particular medications or vaccine accessible for utilization in individuals or creatures. Stanford education (2014) states that Ebola virus was initially recognized as a possible new strain of Marburg virus in 1976. Stanford education states that Ebola infection is initially wide spreading in Sudan and Zaire. Ebola virus is a member of filoviridae family. Farrar and Piot (2014) reported that as of September 14, 2014, a total of 4507 confirmed and likely instances of Ebola virus disease, and also 2296 deaths from the infection, had been accounted for from five nations in West Africa — Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leon. Contact with body fluids demonstrated a solid affiliation. Francesconi et al. (2003) comments that Persons who had immediate physical contact with a infected person were more inclined to have gained the disease. 1.2 History of Ebola virus Peters and Leduc (1999) comments that biomedical science initially experienced the virus family filoviridae when Marburg virus showed up in 1967 and in the late 1970s, the global group was again startled, this time by the revelation of Ebola infection as the causative executor of significant flare-ups of hemorrhagic fever in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Sudan. History of Ebola infection can be found online (Stanfort education, 2014) The first outbreaks of infected in excess of 284 peoples, with a 53% death rate. After the few months the second Ebola infection caused from Yambuku, Zaire, Ebola-Zaire (EBOZ). EBOZ, with the most astounding death rate of any of the Ebola infection (88%), contaminated 318 peoples. In 1989, a novel infection, Reston Ebolavirus (REBOV) was secluded from commonly tainted cynomolgus macaques imported from the Philippines into United States. All shipments aside from one were followed to single supplier in the Philippines; however, the main beginning of the infection and mode of sullying for the office has never been learned. While pathogenic for regularly and tentatively tainted monkeys, constrained information demonstrate that REBOV may not be pathogenic for people as creature overseers without delivering clinical side effects. A review by Georges et al. (1999) reported that, in 1994, at Gabon, Occured in Mà ©kouka and other gold-mining camps profound in the downpour backwoods. At first thought to be yellow fever; recognized as Ebola hemorrhagic fever in 1995. Zuckerman(2008) reported that In 2000, Happened in Gulu, Masindi, and Mbarara areas of Uganda. The three most essential dangers connected with Ebola infection contamination were going to funerals of Ebola hemorrhagic fever patients, having contact with infected patients in ones family, and giving restorative forethought to Ebola infected patients without utilizing sufficient individual defensive measures. In this situation, reported number of human cases is 425 and reported number of deaths among cases is 224. 1.3 Characteristics of Ebola virus A review by Sullivan et al. (2003) comments that Ebola was found in 1976 and is a member of the Filovirus family, which are pleomophic, negative-sense RNA viruses whose genome organization is most similar to the paramyxoviridae. Geisbert et al. (2010) states EBOV particles contain a non-infectious RNA genome of roughly 19 kilobases that encodes seven structural proteins and one non-structural protein. The gene order is 3†² leader, nucleoprotein, virion protein 35 , virion protein 40, glycoprotein, virion protein 30, polymerase L protein, and 5†² trailer.3 Four of these proteins—nucleoprotein, virion protein30, virion protein35, and the polymerase L protein—are associated with the viral genomic RNA in the ribonucleoprotein complex.Crowley and Crusberg (2014) states Ebola viruses are long and filamentious, essentially bacilliform. However the viruses mostly get on a â€Å"U† shape. The particles of these viruses can be above 14,000 nm in long and average 80 nm in diameter. Visualscience.ru (2014) states Ebola has a layer envelope its shaped from the film of the host cell during virus budding. The viral molecule additionally catches various human proteins. Ebola surface protein, encoded by the gp gene. Transmission of the virus PHAC-ASPC.GC.CA (2014) states, that in an outbreak, it is theorized that the first patient gets to be infected as an aftereffect of contact with an infected animals. Person to person transmission happens by means of close personal contact with an infected individual or their body fluids during the late stages of disease or after death. Centers for Disease Control (2014) reported that Ebola is not spread through the air or by water, or in general, foods. However Ebola is spread through direct contact with blood or body fluids including but not limited to urine, salivation, dung, regurgitation, and semen of an individual who is infected by Ebola. And also Ebola virus can be transmitted by objects like needles and syringes that have been contaminated with the virus. 1.4 Symptoms of Ebola infection Smith (2014) stats that, the symptoms of Ebola may be shown out from 2 days to 21 days after the infection of Ebola virus, but the average is 8 to 10 days from the infection. The symptoms are quite similar to the flu, cholera, typhoid, and malaria. The symptoms usually include high fever, serious head pain, body weakness, retching, diarrhea, stomach torment, Lack of apptite, and sore throat. Symptoms of Ebola can be found online (Health24, 2014). Progression of Ebola fever causes bleeding inside the body, and from the eyes, ears, nose and anus. Some individuals will vomit or hack up blood, have wicked looseness of the bowels, have impaired kidney and liver function, have continues hiccups and get a rash. Diagnosing methods of Ebola can be found online (Cdc.gov, 2014). In the earlier stage is really very difficult because the early symptoms are quite similar to the symptoms of malaria and typhoid fever. In his analysis Zubay (2005,pp) says that tests with live virus must be performed in Biosafety Level 4 regulation research centers, due to the compelling harmfulness and infectiousness of disease. 1.5 Diagnosis methods Diagnosing methods of Ebola can be found online (Centers for disease control and prevention, 2014). In the earlier stage is really very difficult because the early symptoms are quite similar to the symptoms of malaria and typhoid fever. In his analysis Zubay (2005,p.71,72) says that tests with live virus must be performed in Biosafety Level 4 regulation research centers, due to the compelling harmfulness and infectiousness of disease. A review by Saijo et al, (2006) says after the isolation, the virus can be detected via various laboratory diagnostic methods like virus isolation, reverse transcription, real time quantitative method , antigen-capture enzyme-linked immune sorbent assay method (ELISA), antigen detection by immunostaining, or IgG-and IgM-ELISA using authentic virus antigens (9, 18, 28-30, 32, 48, 50, 53, 64). Diagnosing methods can differ with the time line of infection which can be found online (Centers for disease control and prevention, 2014). Within a few days after the symptoms shown out we could use Antigen-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) testing or IgM ELISA or Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or Virus isolation and for retrospectively in deceased patients we need to use Immunohistochemistry testing or PCR or virus isolation and later in the disease course or after recovery we could use IgM and IgG antibodies. In his analysis Bray (2014) says that as indicated by the WHO, people who no more have signs and indications of Ebola infection sickness can be released on the off chance that they have two contrary PCR tests on entire blood, differentiated by no less than 48 hours. 1.6 Treatment methods Schoenstadt (2014) says that there are no proven treatment methods to kill the Ebola virus therefore, treatment concentrates on giving easing of side effects as the body battles the virus. This is called supportive care. Ziady and Small (2004) stats that patients receive supportive treatments like balancing fluid and electrolytes, maintaining tissue and pulmonary oxygenation, maintaining blood circulation by replacing blood loss, and treating complications symptomatically. Gupta, (2014) comments that chronicled examples in medication improvement recommend that there is a slim likelihood of accomplishment with the current arrangement of potential Ebola treatments. Torrence (2005) stats that scientists have also examined the potential of heterologous live viral vectors in effectively preventing Ebola virus infection. And we also can say good nursing care and using antibiotics to prevent secondary infections from bacteria also supportive care for Ebola. Lamontagne et al. (2014) says General wellbeing mediations including describing the episode the study of disease transmission, contact following, social assembly, and state funded instruction are fundamental steps in ceasing Ebola and will at last spare a lot of people a larger number of lives than can be spared by individual patient forethought. (Geisbert, 2014) says that antibody therapies and several other methodologies mentioned here should ultimately be included in an arsenal of interventions for controlling future Ebola outbreaks. 1.7 Conclusion Ebola is infection and highly lethal and with no verifiably effective vaccine available. However the ebola hemorraghic fever can be control by spreading virus. First of all, the health ministry of government and who knows about the Ebola virus disease they should be Awareness to essential peoples. Because everyone must be attention about the Ebola infection. The ebola infection only can diagnosis under the advanced laboratory, but there are no lab facilities backwardness areas and also some essential countries. However who the person shows the ebola virus symptoms, we should be try to transfer to where can diagnose. In the future government should be provide advanced lab facilities for diagnose the infection when the infection highly spreading. The medical workers of ebola virus diagnosing or researching they should be wear protective clothing transport a man suffering from Ebola. Reference list Bray, M. (2014). Uptodate. Available at: http://www.uptodate.com/contents/diagnosis-and-treatment-of-ebola-and-marburg-virus-disease# (Accessed 30 October 2014). Centers for disease control and prevention (2014) Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/diagnosis/ (Accessed 29 October 2014). Centers for disease and prevention (2014). Transmission of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever [online] Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/vhf/ebola/transmission/ (Accessed 27 September 2014). Crowley, J. and Crusberg, T. (2014). Genomic Structure, Comparative and Molecular Biology. Available at: http://www.mcb.uct.ac.za/ebola/ebolagen.html (Accessed: 28 September 2014). Farrar, J. and Piot, P. (2014). ‘Ebola Virus Disease in West Africa -The First 9 Months of the Epidemic and Forward Projections’, New England Journal Medicine, 371(16), pp.1481-1495 [Online]. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMoa1411100 (Accessed: 6 November 2014) Francesconi, P., Yoti, Z., Declich, S., Onek, P., Fabiani, M., Olango, J., Andraghetti, R., Rollin, P., Opira, C., Greco, D. and Salmaso, S. (2003). ‘Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever Transmission and Risk Factors of Contacts, Uganda’. Emerging Infectous Disease, 9(11), pp.1430-1437, National Center for Biotechnology Information [Online]. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3035551/ (Accessed: 6 November 2014) Geisbert, T., Lee, A., Robbins, M., Geisbert, J., Honko, A., Sood, V., Johnson, J., de Jong, S., Tavakoli, I., Judge, A., Hensley, L. and MacLachlan, I. (2010). Postexposure protection of non-human primates against a lethal Ebola virus challenge with RNA interference: a proof-of-concept study. 375(9729), pp.1896-1905, The Lancet. (online). Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(10)60357-1 (Accessed 28 September 2014) Geisbert, T. (2014). ‘Medical research: Ebola therapy protects severely ill monkeys’, Nature, 514(7520), pp.41-43, Nature Publishing Group [Online]. Available at: http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vnfv/ncurrent/full/nature13746.html (Accessed:6 November 2014). Georges, A., Leroy, E., Renaut, A., Benissan, C., Nabias, R., Ngoc, M., Obiang, P., Lepage, J., Bertherat, E., Benoni, D. (1999). Ebola hemorrhagic outbreaks in Gabon. Journal of Infectious Diseases. 179(Supplement 1), pp.6575. [Online]. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9988167 (Accessed: 6 Oct. 2014). Gupta, R. (2014). ‘Rethinking the development of Ebola treatments’, The Lancet Global Health, 2(10), pp.e563-e564 [Online]. Available at: http://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(14)70304-3/fulltext (Accessed: 6 November 2014). Health24 (2014). Available at: http://www.health24.com/Medical/infectious-diseases/Ebola/Signs-and-symptoms-of-Ebola-20140729 (Accessed 29 October 2014). Lamontagne, F., Clà ©ment, C., Fletcher, T., Jacob, S., Fischer, W. and Fowler, R. (2014). ‘Doing Todays Work Superbly Well — Treating Ebola with Current Tools’. New England Journal of Medicine, 371(17), pp.1565-1566 [Online]. Available at: http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMp1411310 (Accessed: 6 November 2014) Mahy, B. and Van Regenmortel, M. (2010). Desk encyclopedia of human and medical virology. Google books [Online]. Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=nsh48WKIbhQCpg=PA382dq=ebola+virus+history+originhl=ensa=Xei=rCUyVP7wDcSjugTzs4GQDQved=0CDMQ6AEwBA#v=onepageq=ebola%20virus%20history%20originf=false (Accessed 4 Oct. 2014). Peters, C. and LeDuc, J. (1999). ‘An Introduction to Ebola: The Virus and the Disease’. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 179(s1), p.Six-xvi. [Online]. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/514322 (Accessed 4 Oct. 2014). Public Health Agency of Canada (2014). Available at: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/lab-bio/res/psds-ftss/ebola-eng.php (Accessed 27 September 2014). Saijo, M., Niikura, M., Ikegami, T., Kurane, I., Kurata, T. and Morikawa, S. (2006). ‘Laboratory Diagnostic Systems for Ebola and Marburg Hemorrhagic Fevers Developed with Recombinant Proteins’. Clinical and Vaccine Immunology, 21, November [Online]. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cvi.13.4.444-451.2006 (Accessed 30 October 2014). Schoenstadt, A. (2014). eMedTV: Health Information Brought To Life. Available at: http://ebola.emedtv.com/ebola/ebola-treatment.html (Accessed: 6 November 2014) Smith,W. (2014).Webmd. Available at: http://www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/ebola-fever-virus-infection (Accessed 29 Oct. 2014). Sullivan, N., Yang, Z. and Nabel, G. (2003). Ebola Virus Pathogenesis: Implications for Vaccines and Therapies. 77(18), pp.9733-9737, Journal of Virology. [online]. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.77.18.9733-9737.2003 (Accessed 28 September 2014). Torrence, P. (2005). Antiviral drug discovery for emerging diseases and bioterrorism threats. Google books [Online]. Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=QZl7GzhTsb8Cdq=Torrence,+P+Antiviral+drug+discovery+for+emerging+diseases+and+bioterrorism+threats.source=gbs_navlinks_s (Accessed: 6 November 2014). Visualscience.ru (2014). Available at: http://visualscience.ru/en/projects/ebola/poster/ (Accessed 28 September 2014). Web.stanford.edu (2005) Available at: https://web.stanford.edu/group/virus/filo/history.html (Accessed: 6 November 2014). World Health organization (2014). Ebola Virus Diseases (EVD) Implication of Introduction in the Americas. Jamaica: Jamaica information service [online]. Available at: http://jis.gov.jm/features/ebola-virus-diseases-evd-implication-introduction-americas/ (Accessed 6 November 2014). Ziady, L. and Small, N. (2004). Prevent and control infection. Google books [Online]. Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=kSKwP3v99dYCpg=PA256lpg=PA256dq=Ziady,+L.+and+Small,+N.+(2004).+Prevent+and+control+infectionsource=blots=DEOU4V_3gRsig=phk4sKUjV30cWcw7qv3Xo08Id1khl=ensa=Xei=yq5bVPGeGsr98AXShIKACAved=0CB0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepageq=Ziady%2C%20L.%20and%20Small%2C%20N.%20(2004).%20Prevent%20and%20control%20infectionf=false (Accessed: 6 November 2014) Zubay, G. (2005). Agents of bioterrorism. Google books [Online]. Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=AwkVgNPRnKoCdq=diagnosis+methods+ebola+Zubaysource=gbs_navlinks_s (Accessed 29 October 2014). Zuckerman, A. (2008). Principles and practice of clinical virology. Google books [Online]. Available at: http://books.google.lk/books?id=4il2mF7JG1sCpg=PA774lpg=PA774dq=Okware+SI,+Omaswa+FG,+Zaramba+S,+et+al.+An+outbreak+of+Ebola+in+Uganda.source=blots=NBElqYFkMRsig=o7MGwDL_xghUdwFQohFWtqj_TOohl=ensa=Xei=ZUEyVJC_G8aOuATxwoGoAQved=0CCMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepageq=An%20outbreak%20of%20Ebola%20in%20Ugandaf=false (Accessed 4 October 2014).

The Journey Through The Differences In Relationships in Cold Sassy Tree

The Journey Through The Differences In Relationships in Cold Sassy Tree Dating back to the early 1900’s and all the way through to the present, romantic relationships have been viewed differently. From strict unwritten dating regulations to not having regulations at all, recent generations have become more liberated in making their own decisions. The progressing times have made us become a more accepting society and have caused a decrease in the strong practice of religion and class. Even though differences such as religion and class in relationships were more than an issue they were not always a complete deterrence. In the novel Cold Sassy Tree (1984), Olive Ann Burn's plot focuses heavily on religion and its role in society. Mary Willis Blakeslee, a Baptist, is tried for heresy by the deacons of the Baptist church for marrying Hoyt Tweedy, a Presbyterian. â€Å"The deacons voted to put it in the church records that ‘Mary Willis Blakeslee has swapped her religious birthright for a mess of matrimonial pottage’† (11). After her father Rucker Blakeslee confronted the deacons they agreed to remove the pottage element from the document (11). Although this confrontation with Grandpa intimidated the deacons it didn’t impede them from excommunicating Mary Willis from her â€Å"birth church.† As it ended up she decided to attend the church of her husband, Hoyt Tweedy. As Cold Sassy Tree illustrates, in Georgia in the early 1900’s religion played a major role in marriage decision along with membership to the church. This sort of attention that Mary Willis a cquired was very hard for her to tolerate emotionally. It was important to her to appear respectable to the community. Regardless of this embarrassment caused by the Baptist... ... the level of education problems such as outside gossiping, financial differences, differences in interests, and the decrease in one’s pride can occur. Religion and class are still issues in relationships but members of our generation tend to question them less, yet these issues have never been a complete deterrence to a happy and healthy relationship. As time periods change so do the values and morals of the upcoming generations. As illustrated the younger the generation, the more liberated they become to make their own decisions and mistakes. It is the mistakes that we learn from that teach us life’s greatest lesson. After all, if we never made a mistake how would we know if we are leading a correct life? Works Cited Burns, Olive Ann. Cold Sassy Tree. New York: Dell Publishing, 1984. Accarino, Susan. Personal interview. 20 March 2001.

Procurement and supply chain management Essay

This Publication is concerned with the vital subject of business logistics and supply chain management, an area that can be essential to a firm’s competitive strategy and revenue generation. This management area has been described by many names, including physical distribution, materials management, transportation management, logistics, and supply chain management. Relevant business activities may include one or more of the following areas: transportation, inventory, order processing, purchasing, warehousing, materials handling, packaging, customer service standards, and production. The focus of this Publication is on the planning, organizing, and controlling of these activities – key elements for successful management in any organization. Special emphasis is given to strategic planning and decision making as an important part of the management process. Managerial efforts are directed towards setting the level of the logistics activities so as to make products and services available to customers at the time and place required, and in the condition and form desired, in the most profitable and cost-effective way. Logistical activities have always been vital to organizations, and so business logistics and supply chain management represents a synthesis of many concepts, principles, and methods from the more traditional areas of marketing, production, accounting, purchasing, and transportation, as well as from the disciplines of applied mathematics, organizational behaviour, and economics. This Publication attempts to unify these elements to assist in the effective management of the supply chain. The Publication aims to present ideas, principles and techniques that are fundamental to good business logistics practice. It concentrates on important activities of management such as planning, organizing, and controlling, and also on a triangle of interrelated transportation, inventory, and location strategies, which are at the heart of good logistics planning and decision making. Contemporary trends that affect the scope and practice of business logistics and supply chain management have been integrated into the body of the text. Firstly, emphasis is placed on logistics and supply chain management in a worldwide setting to reflect the growing internationalization and globalization of business in general. Secondly, the shift towards service-oriented economies by industrialized nations is emphasized by showing how logistics concepts and principles are applicable to both service-producing tirms and product-producing ones. Thirdly, attention is given to the integrated management of supply chain activities. 1 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk The Publication contains many practical and contemporary examples that show the applicability of the textual material and assist in the understanding and learning of the key points and concepts. Each Chapter in this Cambridge International College Publication on Logistics, Chain Supply & Transport Management includes: †¢ An introduction section †¢ Examples and/or figures and diagrams to explain the concepts being covered †¢ A summary of concluding comments †¢ Review Questions designed to reinforce learning and contemplation of what is covered in the Chapter Advice on How to Study this Program Every individual CIC Member approaches his/her study in a different manner, and different people may have a particular study method that they find most effective for them. However, the following is a tested and proven Study Method, suggested to you as a CIC Member in order to assist in making your study and learning easier – and enjoyable – and to assist you to quickly master the contents of this CIC Publication on Logistics, Chain Supply & Transport Management: Step 1: Set yourself a flexible study schedule, depending on the time you have available and what is best for you. For example, the target set could be to study for 1 or 2 hours a night, or for 8 or 9 hours a week, or to complete one Chapter every 2 weeks. There is no set or compulsory schedule, but simply setting a schedule or goal is often an important action in ensuring that study is undertaken successfully and within the specified timeframe. Step 2: Read the whole of the first Chapter at your normal reading pace, without trying to memorise every topic covered or fact stated, but trying to get â€Å"the feel† of what is dealt with in the Chapter as a whole. Step 3: Start reading the Chapter again from the beginning, this time reading more slowly, paragraph by paragraph and section by section. Make brief notes of any points, sentences, paragraphs or sections which you feel need your further study, consideration or thought. You may wish to keep any notes in a separate file or notebook. Try to absorb and memorise all the important topics covered. Step 4: Start reading the Chapter again from its start, this time paying particular attention to – and if necessary studying more thoroughly – those parts on which you earlier wrote notes for further study. It is best that you do not pass on to other parts or topics until you are certain you fully understand and remember those parts you earlier noted as requiring your special attention. Try to fix everything taught firmly in your mind. 2 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk Step 5: There are self-assessment review questions at the end of the Chapter, and you are strongly advised to try to answer or think about them as best you can – but do not send your answers to the College. If these questions/exercises highlight any areas that you feel you need to revise or re-read in the Chapter, then go ahead and do that before moving on to Step 6. Step 6: Once you have completed steps 1 to 5 above, move on to the next Chapter and repeat steps 1 to 5 for each subsequent Chapter. 3 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk LOGISTICS, SUPPLY CHAIN & TRANSPORT MANAGEMENT PROGRAM MODULE ONE – BUSINESS LOGISTICS/SUPPLY CHAIN – A VITAL SUBJECT (based on Chapter 1 of ‘Logistics, Supply Chain and Transport Management’ by Ronald H Ballou) Contents Introduction Business Logistics Defined The Supply Chain The Activity Mix Importance of Logistics/Supply Chain (SC) Costs Are Significant Logistics Customer Service Expectations Are Increasing Supply and Distribution Lines Are Lengthening with Greater Complexity Logistics/SC Is Important to Strategy Logistics/SC Adds Significant Customer Value Customers Increasingly Want Quick, Customized Response Logistics/SC in Non-Manufacturing Areas Service Industry Military Environment Business Logistics/SC in the Firm Objectives of Business Logistics/SC Questions and Problems Introduction As far back as history records, the goods that people wanted were not always produced where they wanted to consume them, or these goods were not accessible when people wanted to consume them. Food and other commodities were widely dispersed and were only available in abundance at certain times of the year. Early peoples had the choice of consuming goods at their immediate location or moving the goods to a preferred site and storing them for later use. However, because no well developed transportation and storage systems yet existed, the movement of goods was limited to what an individual could personally move, and storage of perishable commodities was possible for only a short time. This limited movement-storage system generally constrained people to live close to the sources of production and to consume a rather narrow range of goods. Even today, in some areas of the world consumption and production take place only within a very limited geographic region. Striking examples can still be observed in the developing nations of Asia, South America, Australia, and Africa, where some of the population live in small, self-sufficient villages, and most of the goods needed by the residents are produced or acquired in the immediate vicinity. Few goods are imported from other areas. Therefore, production efficiency and the economic standard of living are generally low. In this type of economy, a well-developed and inexpensive logistics system would encourage an exchange of goods with other producing areas of the country, or even the world. 4 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk As logistics systems improved, consumption and production began to separate geographically. Regions would specialize in those commodities that could be produced most efficiently. Excess production could be shipped economically to other producing (or consuming) areas, and needed goods not produced locally were imported. This exchange process follows the principle of comparative advantage. This same principle, when applied to world markets, helps to explain the high level of international trade that takes place today. Efficient logistics systems allow world businesses to take advantage of the fact that lands, and the people who occupy them, are not equally productive. Logistics is the very essence of trade. It contributes to a higher economic standard of living for us all. To the individual firm operating in a high-level economy, good management of logistics activities is vital. Markets are often national or international in scope, whereas production may be concentrated at relatively few points. Logistics activities provide the bridge between production and market locations that are separated by time and distance. Effective management of these activities is the major concern of this Program. Business Logistic Defined Business logistics is a relatively new field of integrated management study in comparison with the traditional fields of finance, marketing, and production. As previously noted, logistics activities have been carried out by individuals for many years. Businesses also have continually engaged in movestore (transportation-inventory) activities. The newness of the field results from the concept of coordinated management of the related activities, rather than the historical practice of managing them separately, and the concept that logistics adds value to products or services that are essential to customer satisfaction and sales. Although co-ordinated logistics management has not been generally practiced until recently, the idea of co-ordinated management can be traced back to at least 1844. In the writings of Jules Dupuit, a French engineer, the idea of trading one cost for another (transportation costs for inventory costs) was evident in the selection between road and water transport: â€Å"The fact is that carriage by road being quicker, more reliable and less subject to loss or damage, it possesses advantage to which businessmen often attach a considerable value. However, it may well be that a saving induces the merchant to use a canal; he can buy warehouses and increase his floating capital in order to have a sufficient supply of goods on hand to protect himself against slowness and irregularity of the canal, and if all told the saving in transport gives him a cost advantage, he will decide in favour of the new route. † The first textbook to suggest the benefits of co-ordinated logistics management appeared around 1961, in part explaining why a generally accepted definition of business logistics is still emerging. Therefore, it is worthwhile to explore several definitions for the scope and content of the subject. A dictionary definition of the term logistics is: â€Å"The branch of military science having to do with procuring, maintaining, and transporting material, personnel, and facilities. † This definition puts logistics into a military context. To the extent that business objectives and activities differ from those of the military, this definition does not capture the essence of business logistics management. A better representation of the field may be reflected in the definition promulgated by the Council of Logistics Management (CLM), a professional organization of logistics 5 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk managers, educators, and practitioners formed in 1962 for the purposes of continuing education and fostering the interchange of ideas. Its definition: â€Å"Logistics is that part of the supply chain process that plans, implements, and controls the efficient, effective flow and storage of goods, services, and related information from the point of origin to the point of consumption in order to meet customers’ requirements. † This is an excellent definition, conveying the idea that product flows are to be managed from the point where they exist as raw materials to the point where they are finally discarded. Logistics is also concerned with the flow of services as well as physical goods, an area of growing opportunity for improvement. It also suggests that logistics is a process, meaning that it includes all the activities that have an impact on making goods and services available to customers when and where they wish to acquire them. However, the definition implies that logistics is part of the supply chain process, not the entire process. So, what is the supply chain process or, more popularly, supply chain management? Supply chain management (SCM) is a term that has emerged in recent years that captures the essence of integrated logistics and even goes beyond it. Supply chain management emphasizes the logistics interactions that take place among the functions of marketing, logistics, and production within a firm and those interactions that take place between the legally separate firms within the product-flow channel. Opportunities for cost or customer service improvement are achieved through co-ordination and collaboration among the channel members where some essential supply chain activities may not be under the direct control of the logistician. Although early definitions such as physical distribution, materials management, industrial logistics and channel management – all terms used to describe logistics – have promoted this broad scope for logistics, there was little attempt to implement logistics beyond a company’s own enterprise boundaries, or even beyond its own internal logistics function. Now, retail firms are showing success in sharing information with suppliers, who in turn agree to maintain and manage inventories on retailers’ shelves. Channel inventories and product stockouts are lower. Manufacturing firms operating under just-in-time production scheduling build relationships with suppliers for the benefit of both companies by reducing inventories. Definitions of the supply chain and supply chain management reflecting this broader scope are: â€Å"The supply chain (SC) encompasses all activities associated with the flow and transformation of goods from the raw materials stage (extraction), through to the end user, as well as the associated information flows. Materials and information flow both up and down the supply chain. † â€Å"Supply chain management (SCM) is the integration of these activities, through improved supply chain relationships, to achieve a sustainable competitive advantage. † After careful study of the various definitions being offered, Mentzer and other writers propose the broad and rather general definition as follows: â€Å"Supply chain management is defined as the systematic, strategic coordination of the traditional business functions and the tactics across these business functions within a particular company and across businesses within the supply chain, for the purposes of improving the long-term performance of the individual companies and the supply chain as a whole. † 6 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. The supply chain management model in Figure 1-1 viewed as a pipeline shows the scope of this definition. It is important to note that supply chain management is about the co-ordination of product flows across functions and across companies to achieve competitive advantage and profitability for the individual companies in the supply chain and the supply chain members collectively. It is difficult, in a practical way, to separate business logistics management from supply chain management. In so many respects, they promote the same mission: â€Å"To get the right goods or services to the right place, at the right time, and in the desired condition, while making the greatest contribution to the firm. † Some claim that supply chain management is just another name for integrated business logistics management (IBLM) and that the broad scope of supply chain management has been promoted over the years. Conversely, others say that logistics is a subset of SCM, where SCM considers additional issues beyond those of product flow. For example, SCM may be concerned with product pricing and manufacturing quality. Although SCM promotes viewing the supply channel with the broadest scope, the reality is that firms do not practise this ideal. Fawcett and Magan found that companies that do practise supply chain integration limit their scope to one tier upstream and one tier downstream. The focus seems to be concerned with creating seamless processes within their own companies and applying new information technologies to improve the quality of information and speed of its exchange among channel members. The boundary between the logistics and supply chain management terms is fuzzy. Even then, logistics activities are repeated once again as used products are recycled upstream in the logistics channel. A single firm generally is not able to control its entire product flow channel from raw material source to points of the final consumption, although this is an emerging opportunity. For practical purposes, the business logistics for the individual firm has a narrower scope. Usually, the maximum managerial control that can be expected is over the immediate physical supply and physical distribution channels, as shown in Figure 1-2. The physical supply channel refers to the time and space gap between a firm’s immediate material sources and its processing points. Similarly, the physical distribution channel refers to the time and space gap between the firm’s processing points and its customers. Due to the similarities in the activities between the two channels, physical supply (more commonly referred to as materials management) 8 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk and physical distribution comprise those activities that are integrated into business logistics. Business logistics management is now popularly referred to as supply chain management. Others have used terms such as value nets, value stream, and lean logistics to describe a similar scope and purpose. The evolution of the management of product flows toward SCM is captured in Figure 1-3. Although it is easy to think of logistics as managing the flow of products from the points of raw material acquisition to end customers, for many firms there is a reverse logistics channel that must be managed as well. The life of a product, from a logistics viewpoint, does not end with delivery to the customer. Products become obsolete, damaged, or nonfunctioning and are returned to their source points for repair or disposition. Packaging materials may be returned to the shipper due to environmental regulations or because it makes good economic sense to reuse them. The reverse logistics channel may utilize all or a portion of the forward logistics channel or it may require a separate design. The supply chain terminates with the final disposition of a product. The reverse channel must be considered to be within the scope of logistics planning and control. The Activity Mix The activities to be managed that make up business logistics (supply chain process) vary from firm to firm, depending on a firm’s particular organizational structure, management’s honest differences of opinion about what constitutes the supply chain for its business, and the importance of individual activities to its operations. Follow along the supply chain as shown in Figure 1-2 and note the important activities that take place. Again, according to the CLM: 9 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk â€Å"The components of a typical logistics system are: customer service, demand forecasting, distribution communications, inventory control, material handling, order processing, parts and service support, plant and warehouse site selection (location analysis), purchasing, packaging, return goods handling, salvage and scrap disposal, traffic and transportation, and warehousing and storage. † Figure 1-4 organizes these components, or activities, according to where they are most likely to take place in the supply channel. The list is further divided into key and support activities, along with some of the decisions associated with each activity. Customer service standards co-operate with marketing to: a. Determine customer needs and wants for logistics customer service b. Determine customer response to service c. Set customer service levels 2. Transportation a. Mode and transport service selection b. Freight consolidation c. Carrier routing d. Vehicle scheduling e. Equipment selection f. Claims processing g. Rate auditing 3. Inventory management a. Raw materials and finished goods stocking policies b. Short-term sales forecasting c. Product mix at stocking points 10 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk d. Number, size, and location of stocking points e. Just-in-time, push, and pull strategies 4. Information flows and order processing a. Sales order-inventory interface procedures b. Order information transmittal methods c. Ordering rules Support Activities 1. Warehousing a. Space determination b. Stock layout and dock design c. Warehouse configuration d. Stock placement 2. Materials handling a. Equipment selection b. Equipment replacement policies c. Order-picking procedures d. Stock storage and retrieval 3. Purchasing a. Supply source selection b. Purchase timing c. Purchase quantities 4. Protective packaging designed for: a. Handling b. Storage c. Protection from loss and damage 5. Co-operate with production/operations to: a. Specify aggregate quantities b. Sequence and time production output c. Schedule supplies for production/operations 6. Information maintenance a. Information collection, storage, and manipulation b. Data analysis Control procedures Key and support activities are separated because certain activities will generally take place in every logistics channel, whereas others will take place, depending on the circumstances, within a particular firm. The key activities are on the â€Å"critical† loop within a firm’s immediate physical distribution channel, as shown in Figure 1 to 5. They contribute most to the total cost of logistics or they are essential to the effective co-ordination and completion of the logistics task. 11 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk Customer service standards set the level of output and degree of readiness to which the logistics system must respond. Logistics costs increase in proportion to the level of customer service provided, such that setting the standards for service also affects the logistics costs to support that level of service. Setting very high service requirements can force logistics costs to exceedingly high levels. Transportation and inventories maintenance are the primary cost-absorbing logistics activities. Experience has shown that each will represent one-half to two-thirds of total logistics costs. Transportation adds place value to products and services, whereas inventories maintenance adds time value. Transportation is essential because no modern firm can operate without providing for the movement of its raw materials or its finished products. This importance is underscored by the financial strains placed on many firms by such disasters as a national railroad strike or independent truckers’ refusal to move goods because of rate disputes. In these circumstances, markets cannot be served, and products back up in the logistics pipeline to deteriorate or become obsolete. Inventories are also essential to logistics management because it is usually not possible or practical to provide instant production or ensure delivery times to customers. They serve as buffers between supply and demand so that needed product availability may be maintained for customers while providing flexibility for production and logistics in seeking efficient methods for manufacture and distribution of the product. Order processing is the final key activity. Its costs usually are minor compared to transportation or inventory maintenance costs. Nevertheless, order processing is an important element in the total time that it takes for a customer to receive goods or services. It is the activity triggering product movement and service delivery. Although support activities may be as critical as the key activities in any particular circumstance, they are considered here as contributing to the logistics mission. In addition, one or more of the support activities may not be a part of the logistics activity mix for every firm. For example, products such as finished automobiles or commodities such as coal, iron ore, or gravel not needing the weather and security protection of warehousing will not require the warehousing activity, even though inventories are maintained. However, warehousing and materials handling are typically conducted wherever products are temporarily halted in their movement to the marketplace. 12 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk Protective packaging is a support activity of transportation and inventory maintenance as well as of warehousing and materials handling because it contributes to the efficiency with which these other activities are carried out. Purchasing and product scheduling often may be considered more a concern of production than of logistics. However, they also affect the overall logistics effort, and specifically they affect the efficiency of transportation and inventory management. Finally, information maintenance supports all other logistics activities in that it provides the needed information for planning and control. The extended supply chain refers to those members of the supply channel beyond the firm’s immediate suppliers or customers. They may be suppliers to the immediate suppliers or customers of the immediate customers and so on until raw material source points or end customers are reached. It is important to plan and control the previously noted activities and information flows if they affect the logistics customer service that can be provided and the costs of supplying this service. Management of the extended supply chain has the potential of improving logistics performance beyond that of just managing the activities within the immediate supply chain. Importance of Logistics/Supply Chain Logistics is about creating value – value for customers and suppliers of the firm, and value for the firm’s stakeholders. Value in logistics is primarily expressed in terms of time and place. Products and services have no value unless they are in the possession of the customers when (time) and where (place) they wish to consume them. For example, concessions at a sports event have no value to consumers if they are not available at the time and place that the event is occurring, or if inadequate inventories don’t meet the demands of the sports fans. Good logistics management views each activity in the supply chain as contributing to the process of adding value. If little value can be added, it is questionable whether the activity should exist. However, value is added when customers are willing to pay more for a product or service than the cost to place it in their hands. To many firms throughout the world, logistics has become an increasingly important value-adding process for a number of reasons. Costs Are Significant Over the years, several studies have been conducted to determine the costs of logistics for the whole economy and for the individual firm. There are widely varying estimates of the cost levels. According to the International Monetary Fund (IMF), logistics costs average about 12 percent of the 13 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk world’s gross domestic product. Robert Delaney, who has tracked logistics costs for more than two decades, estimates that logistics costs for the U. S. economy are 9. 9 percent of the U. S. gross domestic product (GDP), or $921 billion. For the firm, logistics costs have ranged from 4 percent to over 30 percent of sales. The results from a cost survey of individual firms are shown in Table 1-3. Although the results show physical distribution costs at about 8 percent of sales, this survey does not include physical supply costs. Probably another one-third may be added to this total to represent average logistics costs for the firm at about 11 percent of sales. Over the last decade, physical distribution costs have ranged between 7 percent and 9 percent of sales. There may be a trend of increasing costs for individual firms, although Wilson and Delaney show over the same period that logistics costs as a percent of U. S. GDP have declined by about 10 percent. Logistics costs, substantial for most firms, rank second only to the cost of goods sold (purchase costs) that are about 50 percent to 60 percent of sales for the average manufacturing firm. Value is added by minimizing these costs and by passing the benefits on to customers and to the firm’s shareholders. Logistics Customer Service Expectations Are Increasing The Internet, just-in-time operating procedures, and continuous replenishment of inventories have all contributed to customers expecting rapid processing of their requests, quick delivery, and a high degree of product availability. According to the Davis Survey of hundreds of companies over the last decade, world-class competitors have average order cycle times (the time between when an order is placed and when it is received) of seven to eight days and line item fill rates of 90 percent to 94 percent. LogFac summarizes world-class logistics performance for domestic companies as: Error rates of less than one per 1,000 orders shipped Logistics costs of well under 5 percent of sales Finished goods inventory turnover of 20 or more times per year Total order cycle time of five working days Transportation cost of one percent of sales revenue or less, if products sold are over $5 per 500 gms As might be expected, the average company performs below these cost and customer service benchmarks, when compared with the statistics in Tables 1-3 and 1-4. Supply and Distribution Lines Are Lengthening with Greater Complexity The trend is toward an integrated world economy. Firms are seeking, or have developed, global strategies by designing their products for a world market and producing them wherever the low-cost 14 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk raw materials, components, and labor can be found (e. g. , Ford’s Focus automobile), or they simply produce locally and sell internationally. In either case, supply and distribution lines are stretched, as compared with the producer who wishes to manufacture and sell only locally. Not only has the trend occurred naturally by firms seeking to cut costs or expand markets, but it is also being encouraged by political arrangements that promote trade. Examples of the latter are the European Union, the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between Canada, the United States, and Mexico, and the economic trade agreement among several countries of South America (MERCOSUR). Globalization and internationalization of industries everywhere will depend heavily on logistics performance and costs, as companies take more of a world view of their operations. As this happens, logistics takes on increased importance within the firm since its costs, especially transportation, become a larger part of the total cost structure. For example, if a firm seeks foreign suppliers for the raw materials that make up its final product or foreign locations to build its product, the motivation is to increase profit. Material and labor costs may be reduced, but logistics costs are likely to increase due to increased transportation and inventory costs. The â€Å"tradeoff†, as shown in Figure 1-6, may lead to higher profit by reducing materials, labour, and overhead costs at the expense of logistics costs and tariffs. â€Å"Outsourcing† adds value, but it requires careful management of logistics costs and product-flow times in the supply channel. Logistics/SC Is Important To Strategy Firms spend a great deal of time finding ways to differentiate their product offerings from those of their competitors. When management recognizes that logistics/SC affects a significant portion of a firm’s costs and that the result of decisions made about the supply chain processes yields different levels of customer service, it is in a position to use this effectively to penetrate new markets, to increase market share, and to increase profits. When a firm incurs the cost of moving the product toward the customer or making an inventory available in a timely manner, for the customer â€Å"value† has been created that was not there previously. It is value as surely as that created through the production of a quality product or through a low price. It is generally recognized that business creates four types of value in products or services. These are: form, time, place, and possession. Logistics creates two out of these four values. Manufacturing creates form value as inputs are converted to outputs, that is raw materials are transformed into finished goods. Logistics controls the time and place values in products, mainly through transportation, information flows, and inventories. Possession value is often considered the responsibility of marketing, engineering, and finance, where the value is created by helping customers acquire the product through such mechanisms as advertising (information), technical support, and terms of sale (pricing and credit availability). To the extent that SCM includes production, three out of the four values may be the responsibility of the logistics/supply chain manager. Customers Increasingly Want Quick, Customized Response Fast food retailers, automatic teller machines, overnight package delivery, and electronic mail on the Internet have led us as consumers to expect that products and services can be made available in increasingly shorter times. In addition, improved information systems and flexible manufacturing processes have led the marketplace toward mass customization. Rather than consumers having to accept the â€Å"one size fits all† philosophy in their purchases, suppliers are increasingly offering products that meet individual customer needs. Companies too have been applying the concept of quick response to their internal operations in order to meet the service requirements of their own marketing efforts. The quick response philosophy has been used to create a marketing advantage. Saks Fifth Avenue applied it, even though big profits are made through big margins and not on cost reductions that might be achieved from good logistics management. Supply chain costs may even rise, although the advantage is to more than cover these costs through increased profits. Logistics/SC in Non-manufacturing Areas It is perhaps easiest to think of logistics/SC in terms of moving and storing a physical product in a manufacturing setting. This is too narrow a view and can lead to many missed business opportunities. The logistics/SC principles and concepts learned over the years can be applied to such areas as service industries, the military, and even environment management. Service Industry The service sector of industrialized countries is large and growing. In the United States, over 70 percent of all jobs are in what the federal government classifies as the service sector. The size of this sector alone forces us to ask if logistics concepts are not equally applicable here as they are to the manufacturing sector. If they are, there is a tremendous untapped opportunity yet to be fulfilled. Many companies designated as service firms in fact produce a product. Examples include: McDonald’s Corporation (fast foods); Dow Jones & Co. , Inc. (newspaper publishing); and Sears, Roebuck and Co. (merchandise retailing). These companies carry out all the typical supply chain activities of any manufacturing firm. However, for service companies such as Bank One (retail banking), Marriott Corporation (lodging) and Consolidated Edison (electric power), supply chain activities, 16 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: Britain. International Headquarters: College House, Leoville, Jersey JE3 2DB, Britain Telefax: +44 (0)1534 485485 Email: info@cambridgetraining. com Website: www. cambridgecollege. co. uk especially those associated with physical distribution, are not as obvious. Even though many service-oriented companies may be distributing an intangible, nonphysical product, they do engage in many physical distribution activities and decisions. A hospital may want to extend emergency medical care throughout the community and must make decisions as to the locations of the centers. United Parcel Service and Federal Express must locate terminals and route pickup and delivery trucks. The East Ohio Gas Company inventories natural gas in underground wells during the off-season in the region where demand will occur. Bank One must locate and have cash inventory on hand for its ATMs. The Federal Reserve Bank must select the methods of transportation to move cancelled cheques among member banks. The Catholic Church must decide the number, location, and size of the churches needed to meet shifts in size and location of congregations, as well as to plan the inventory of its pastoral staff. Xerox’s repair service for copying equipment is also a good example of the logistics decisions encountered in a service operation. The techniques, concepts, and methods discussed throughout this Program should be as applicable to the service sector as they are to the manufacturing sector. The key, according to Theodore Levitt, may be in transforming an intangible service into a tangible product. Problems will remain in carefully identifying the costs associated with the distribution of an intangible product. Perhaps because of this, few service firms or organizations have a physical distribution manager on their staff, although they frequently do have a materials manager to handle supply matters. However, managing logistics in service industries does represent a new direction for the future development of logistics practice. Military Before businesses showed much interest in co-ordinating supply chain processes, the military was well organized to carry out logistics activities. More than a decade before business logistics’ developmental period, the military carried out what was called the most complex, best-planned logistics operation of that time-the invasion of Europe during World War II. Although the problems of the military, with its extremely high customer service requirements, were not identical with those of business, the similarities were great enough to provide a valuable experience base during the developmental years of logistics. For example, the military alone maintained inventories valued at about one-third of those held by all U. s. manufacturers. In addition to the management experience that such large-scale operations provide, the military sponsored, and continues to sponsor, research in the logistics area through such organizations as the RAND Corporation and the Office of Naval Research. With this background, the field of business logistics began to grow. Even the term logistics seems to have had its origins in the military. A recent example of military logistics on a large scale was the conflict between the United States and Iraq over Iraq’s invasion of the small country of Kuwait. This invasion has been described as the largest military logistics operation in history. The logistics support in that war is yet another illustration of what worldclass companies have always known: Good logistics can be a source of competitive advantage. Lt General William Pagonis, in charge of logistics support for Desert Storm, observed: â€Å"When the Middle East started heating up, it seemed like a good time to pull out some history books on desert warfare in this region †¦. But there was nothing on logistics. Logistics is not a best seller. In a couple of his diaries, Rommel talked about logistics. He thought the Germans lost the battle not because they didn’t have great soldiers or equipment – in fact, the German tanks outfought ours almost throughout World War II – but because the British had better logistics. † 17 LSCTMMOD1 Send for a FREE copy of our Prospectus book by airmail, telephone, fax or email, or via our website: The first wave of 200,000 troops and their equipment was deployed in a month and a half, whereas troop deployment took nine months in the Vietnam conflict. In addition, the application of many good logistics concepts was evident. Take customer service, for example: â€Å"We believed that if we took care of our troops, the objectives would be accomplished no matter whatever else happened. The soldiers are our customers. It is no different than a determined, single focus on customers that many successful businesses have. Now, you take care of your soldiers not only by providing them cold sodas, and burgers, and good food: you make sure they have the ammunition on the front line, so that when they go fight the war they know they have what they need. † This meant that when 120 mm guns rather than 105 mm guns were desired on tanks, they were changed. When brown vehicles were preferred over the traditional camouflage green, they were repainted at the rate of 7,000 per month. Environment Population growth and resultant economic development have heightened our awareness of environmental issues. Whether it is recycling, packaging materials, transporting hazardous materials or refurbishing products for resale, logisticians are involved in a major way. After all, the United States alone produces more than 160 million tons of waste each year, enough for a convoy of 10-ton garbage trucks reaching halfway to the moon. In many cases, planning for logistics in an environmental setting is no different from that in manufacturing or service sectors. However, in a few cases additional complications arise, such as governmental regulations that make the logistics for a product more costly by extending the distribution channel. Business Logistics in the Firm It has been the tradition in many firms to organize around marketing and production functions. Typically, marketing means selling something and production means making something. Although few business people would agree that their organization is so simple, the fact remains that many businesses emphasize these functions while treating other activities, such as traffic, purchasing, accounting, and engineering, as support areas. Such an attitude is justified to a degree, because if a firm’s products cannot be produced and sold, little else matters. However, such a pattern is dangerously simple for many firms to follow in that it fails to recognize the importance of the activities that must take place between points and times of production or purchase and the points and times of demand. These are the logistics activities, and they affect the efficiency and effectiveness of both marketing and production. Scholars and practitioners of both marketing and production have not neglected the importance of logistics. In fact, each area considers logistics within its scope of action. For example, the following definition of marketing management includes physical distribution: â€Å"Marketing (management) is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges with target groups that satisfy individual and organizational objectives. † Marketing’s concern is to place its products or services in convenient distribution channels to facilitate the exchange process. The concept of production/ operations management often includes logistics activities. Now, viewing product flow activities as a process to be coordinated, product flow aspects within marketing, production, and logistics are collectively managed to achieve customer service objectives. The difference in operating objectives (maximize revenue versus minimize cost) for marketing and production/operations may lead to a fragmentation of interest in, and responsibility for, logistics activities, as well as a lack of co-ordination among logistics activities as a whole. This, in turn, may lead to lower customer service levels or higher total logistics costs than are necessary. Business logistics represents a regrouping, either by formal organizational structure or conceptually in the minds of management, of the move-store activities that historically may have been partially under the control of marketing and production/ operations. If logistics activities are looked upon as a separate area of managerial action, the relationship of logistics activities to those of marketing and production/ operations would be as is shown in Figure 1-7. Marketing would be primarily responsible for market research, promotion, sales-force management, and the product mix, which create possession value in the product. Production/ operations would be concerned with the creation of the product or service, which creates form value in the product. Key responsibilities would be quality control, production planning and scheduling, job design, capacity planning, maintenance, and work measurement and standards. Logistics would be concerned with those activities (previously defined) that give a product or service time and place value. This separation of the activities of the firm into three groupings rather than two is not always necessary or advisable to achieve the coordination of logistics activities that is sought. Marketing and production/operations, when broadly conceived and co-ordinated, can do an effective job of managing logistics activities without creating an additional organizational entity. Even if a separate functional area is created for logistics within the firm so as to achieve effective control of the firm’s immediate logistics activities, logisticians will need to view their responsibility as one of coordinating the entire supply chain process rather than being just a local logistics activity administrator. To do otherwise may miss substantial opportunities for cost reduction and logistics customer service improvement. The interface is created by the arbitrary separation of a firm’s activities into a limited number of functional areas. Managing the interface activities by one function alone can lead to sub-optimal performance for the firm by subordinating broader company goals to individual functional goals-a potential danger resulting from the departmental form of organizational structure so common in companies today. To achieve interfunctional coordination, some measurement system and incentives for cooperation among the functions involved need to be established. This is equally true of the inter-organizational co-ordination required to manage product flows across company boundaries. It is important to note, however, that establishing a third functional group is not without its disadvantages. Two functional interfaces now exist where only one between marketing and production/ operations previously existed. Some of the most difficult administrative problems arise from the interfunctional conflicts that occur when one is attempting to manage interface activities. Some of this potential conflict may be dissipated if a new organizational arrangement is created whereby production/ operations and logistics are merged into one group called supply chain. Just as managers are beginning to understand the benefits of interfunctional logistics management, inter-organizational management is being encouraged. Supply chain management proponents who view the area more broadly than some logisticians have been strongly promoting the need for collaboration among supply channel members that are outside the immediate control of a company’s  logistician, that is, members who are legally separate companies. Collaboration among the channel members that are linked through buyer-seller relationships is essential to achieving cost-service benefits unable to be realized by managers with strictly an internal view of their responsibilities. Supply chain managers consider themselves to have responsibility for the entire supply channel of the scope as illustrated in Figure 1-8. Managing in this broader environment is the new challenge for the contemporary logistician. Objectives of Business Logistics/SC Within the broader objectives of the firm, the business logistician seeks to achieve supply channel process goals that will move the firm toward its overall objectives. Specifically, the desire is to develop a logistics activity mix that will result in the highest possible return on investment over time. There are two dimensions to this goal: (1) the impact of the logistics system design on the revenue contribution, and (2) the operating cost and capital requirements of the design. Ideally, the logistician should know how much additional revenue would be generated through incremental improvements.

Designing Clear Sentences Essay Sample

Designing Clear Sentences Essay Sample Constructing Clear Sentences and Paragraphs Linguistic Essay Constructing Clear Sentences and Paragraphs Linguistic Essay Correct wording is vital in developing well-structured sentences and paragraphs. If one wants to make communication clear, he or she must arrange words properly to develop clear sentences and well-developed paragraphs. It is crucial to make sentences and paragraphs understandable to readers or listeners. After building correct sentences, the next thing in the process of designing well-written articles is to join the sentences into perfect paragraphs. This is essential if the writer wants to communicate his/her ideas in an organized manner. This has to be done in order to convey a complete topic or idea. There is not any formulae to determine the number of sentences that should be in a paragraph, and this only depends on the complexity as well as the depth of the logic used. The harmony as well as the way ideas are related among the laid down sentences determines the constituents of a paragraph. Each sentence in the paragraph should at least have a relationship with the primary idea i n a clear manner. This essay provides ways and various steps in designing clear sentences and organizing paragraphs from them. First, the ways of creating good sentences include: content limit, short sentence method, word-economy method, determining emphasis in a sentence, provision of unity, and, lastly, arrangement of sentences to provide clarity of thought. Second, the various ways of designing a paragraph that is clear and precise include: providing unity in the paragraph, keeping it short, providing a topic sentence, shun unnecessary details, and, lastly, issue paragraph movement (Bell Farkas, 2001). Ways of Designing Clear Sentences When designing clear sentences, one should ensure that they are not wordy. Bell and Farkas (2001) state that short sentences are attractive to many readers arguably because of human mind limitations. The researchers also state that most readers are rather busy, and writing short and precise sentences saves time. Short sentences, in most cases, range from sixteen words to eighteen words. However, the excessive usage of short words proves to be less attractive. The two ways of shortening sentences and making them clear include limiting the content of the sentence and word economy. Limiting the content of a sentence is whereby one is supposed to select thought units first and then develop separate sentences. It is important to avoid de-emphasizing content if the thoughts are closely related. One should avoid excessively using short sentences, since it presents variable effects according to Kelly (2014). Word-economy refers to seeking shorter alternative means of saying things and suggestions, and it includes: Cluttering Phrases One should shun avoid cluttering phrases and substitute them with shorter expressions, for instance, while someone is trying to mean ‘at the present time,’ he/she should just indicate ‘now.’ Besides, if the writer is trying to mean ‘in the meantime,’ he/she should avoid writing such long phrase and write a short and a precise one as ‘meanwhile.’ Instead of writing ‘in the near future,’ just indicate ‘soon’ (Kelly, 2014) Surplus Words One should avoid using surplus words. These are words that do not add any information to a sentence. Most writers often employ meaningless words or phrases as a matter of their habit. This includes such phrases as, ‘The secretary requested chairs that are of executive class,’ This sentence should be written precisely as, ‘The secretary requested executive-class chairs.’ The latter is a short and precise sentence that does not contain surplus words (Kolin, 2013). Construct Sentences Directly to the Point A good writer should describe or tell about something as it is. Direct manner at all times in the best way of communicating a message. For instance, instead of saying or writing a sentence as, ‘She looked at anyone she came in contact with,’ a good writer should paraphrase it as, ‘She looked at everyone she met.’ Another example of an indirect sentence is, ‘The national budget can be observed to be increasing each decade.’ It is better to avoid the aforementioned structure and write, ‘The national budget is increasing each decade’ (Campbell, 1999). Unnecessary Word Repetition Words can be repeated only while emphasizing something or with an aim of creating a certain effect on the recipient. Instead of writing a repetitive phrase as, ‘the children should assemble together at 2:00 pm in the afternoon,’ just indicate, ‘the children should assemble at 2:00 pm’ (Kolin, 2013). The other method of constructing clear and precise sentences is to determine their emphasis, whereby the writer is supposed to provide each item with the due emphasis it requires. That is, by showing the importance of an item in the sentence. Short sentences, in most cases, emphasize the content, but the long ones de-emphasize the same. Determining the emphasis is an issue of fine judgment, for instance, the following sentence only emphasizes on the gained money, ‘Although their business suffered record loss last month, it gained a lot of money.’ The following sentence, on the other hand, emphasizes on the record loss only, ‘Their business suffered record loss last month although it gained money.’ However, the sentence, ‘Their business gained money last month. The gain occurred despite record losses’ has equal emphasis (Kolin, 2013). The Importance of Unity in a Sentence All parts of a sentence should possess a similar thought and have unity. The three causes of error of unity are: unrelated ideas, excessive details, and illogical constructions (Bell Farkas, 2001). Unrelated Ideas Though a sentence may be grammatically correct, placing unrelated ideas together distorts the sentence unity. Kelly (2014) argues that one can, however, avoid such errors by placing unrelated ideas in different sentences. Besides, one should also exercise subordination of ideas. Adding a word, or words, that may present some relationship may reduce this error. For instance, a sentence, ‘Mr. Smith is the overall manager, and he has a certificate in computing’ may be changed to the following one, which shows subordination of ideas, ‘Mr. Smith, our overall manager, has a certificate in computing.’ However, another sentence may be constructed to show separate ideas, ‘Mr. Smith is our overall manager. He has a certificate in computing.’ Excessive Details Excessive details lead to the elimination of a sentence unity. However, if details are important, a writer should put them in a different sentence. This again means employment of short sentences leading to precise writing (Campbell, 1999). Illogical Constructions Illogical construction can deprive a sentence of its unity. If a writer includes active and passive voice in the same sentence, it distorts unity. For instance, ‘First he reduce price, and then the quantity was reduced’ in this sentence, there is no unity. However, such sentence can be rewritten as, ‘First, he reduced the price, and then he reduced the quantity.’ This one, on the other hand, brings unity (Campbell, 1999). Methods in Designing a Good Paragraph Clear writing requires correct grammar use and following all rules based on logical relationships and custom. Proofreading is paramount if the writer wants to provide a well-written work (Bell Farkas, 2001). The four basic steps that should be considered while developing clear paragraphs include unity, order, coherence, and completeness (Wingersky et al, 2009). Unity Each paragraph possesses a particular controlling idea. The topic sentence introduces the main idea of a paragraph. Unity may vary, but unity in a paragraph only concerns its topic. A paragraph is summarized by taking into account the idea presented in the topic sentence. Depending on the writer’s decision, the topic sentence can be the initial sentence or any other sentence in the paragraph. This topic sentence in a paragraph directs the reader to the writer’s main idea he/she wants to express. It is a general sentence in the paragraph. The writer should make clear judgment while creating a topic sentence and consider all the points and themes intended to be put in the paragraph. The other sentences in a paragraph are known as supporting sentences, and they provide extra details of the topic sentence. They may include examples, facts, and some further details. They issue a clear explanation why the main idea is true. A paragraph can have several supporting sentence in order to corroborate the central idea (Kolin, 2013). Order Order in designing a paragraph refers to the manner in which a writer organizes his or her supporting sentences. The manners include: a) chronological, which refers to time order or order of events; b) spatial, which refers to understanding of the way things are organized in space; c) emphatic, where the writer has to present details in their order of emphasis or significance; d) cause and effect, where the writer has to indicate a specific situation; and e) comparison and/or contrast, where the writer examines differences and similarities of things (Wingersky et al, 2009). Coherence Coherence is a quality that enables a written work to be understandable. The sentences placed in a paragraph need to have connection, and they should work together. The best manner to achieve this is to employ transition words. A writer may employ transition words that show order, e.g. ‘first,’ ‘second.’ A writer may also show spatial relationship, for instance, by using such words as ‘below’ and ‘above.’ The writer may demonstrate logical relationship, for instance, by using such transitions as ‘in addition to’ and ‘furthermore.’ The other different means of maintaining coherence is the employment of constant verb tense. In addition, it is important to be consistent with the presented point of view (Kelly, 2014). Completeness Completeness refers to a good development of a paragraph. That is, if all sentences in a paragraph support the central idea sufficiently and clearly, then the paragraph may be regarded complete. A paragraph is incomplete if there are not enough sentences that elaborate the main point. In most cases, for a paragraph to be declared complete, it must have at least three sentences supporting the main idea, a topic sentence, and a concluding sentence. The concluding sentence gives a summary of the key idea through offering reinforcements to the topic sentence. This concluding sentence finishes the paragraph and prepares one to perceive the information presented in the following paragraph (Kelly, 2014). Transition In other cases, the writer may opt to begin a paragraph with a reference to the previous paragraph, and this is termed as paragraph transition. Transitions are vital in providing clarity. Transitional words demonstrate to the reader of the article all possible shifts in the sequence of thoughts. Besides, they assist in giving ideas in an organized and clear manner. Some of the transitional words assist in presenting the sequence of ideas, whereas others are employed in clarification of the relationship that is present between these ideas (Kelly, 2014). Editing Editing belongs to the last stages of writing, where a writer is expected to proofread the paper’s content and check each paragraph for mistakes and rectify them. In this stage, the writer checks spelling mistakes and grammar. He or she also ensures that there is a subject in each sentence and that the verbs and the subject correlate. In each sentence, the writer also verifies verb tenses and makes sure each sentence is meaningful. Moreover, when editing, the writer has to ensure that all paragraphs have a topic sentence and that the supporting sentences refer to the key idea. It is crucial to check if the paragraph has a concluding sentence. In addition to supporting sentences, a writer should also ensure that all sentences relate to the central idea. Afterwards, it is crucial to check the usage of transitional words and, finally, verify that the paragraphs are interesting (Bell Farkas, 2001). Tone While writing formal essays, one should eliminate the usage of first and the second person, which means avoid using ‘I’ or ‘you.’ Besides, in formal essays one should not use contractions, for instance ‘aren’t’ or ‘don’t.’ It is preferably to use the full version of the words, ‘are not’ and ‘do not’ respectively (Kelly, 2014). Length of Paragraphs An article is considered perfect, when its paragraphs are short and precise. Short paragraphs present some organization in the work, while the long ones become complicated to the reader and show some disorganization in the written work. Arguably, most readers would prefer written work that contains short paragraphs than the one with long paragraphs. Short paragraphs are written on average in eight lines (Campbell, 1999). Ensure Perfect Employment of the Topic Sentence Topic sentence assists in developing good paragraphs. However, not all paragraphs carry a topic sentence. This highly depends on whether the writer wants to place a topic sentence (Kelly, 2014). Eliminate Unnecessary Details Unnecessary information should not be included in the paragraph. One should include only the information that the reader wants, and this is after the writer has studied the readers and determined what they want to know. This is a matter of judgment (Kelly, 2014). Provide Movements in the Paragraphs For a written article to be considered of high quality, movement must be included in the paragraphs. Movement refers to the quality of writing that moves the reader towards the writer’s goal by implementing logical steps (Wingersky et al, 2009). In conclusion, it is paramount for a writer to follow the aforementioned steps in order to make his or her work attractive. A writer should also keenly study the behavior of the intended readers, that is, what the readers know and think. After obtaining this information, one can develop a design of what is required in a sentence. In particular, the writer should employ simple sentences while targeting people with fewer communicative abilities and employ complex sentences while targeting knowledgeable audience. Writing communicates optimally if it is not taxing the comprehension of readers. Emphasis should be managed while designing sentences. Designing of sentences should be done in a manner that is expressing the key point or idea. One should construct a manner with which to merge content into a chain of sentences. If one is presented with particular information, he or she should decide what information to use in forming a clear sentence, considering the order and the form to follow . Fostering awareness of separate sentence types as well as elements will assist one to become a good writer.

The effect of temperature essays

The effect of temperature essays Temperature changes affect most of the biochemical and physiological processes on our planet (Campbell denaturation, it sharply decreases the rate of movement and becomes inactive or dead. In the same way, when the temperature comes close to absolute zero (0 K = -273.15 C), all rate of motion comes down to zero (Campbell ll examine the rate of activity through osmosis, enzyme activity, and respiration. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane (Campbell kinetic energy. Gases will disperse and diffuse in a rapid motion when placed together because of its high kinetic energy. Enzymes are proteins that are function as catalysts. Catalysts are chemical agents thata change the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction (Campbell The rate of respiration of fish should be able to tell us how temperatu...

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